Check out any of my free English worksheets as well. We include transcripts in our worksheets specifically for this reason. As you listen and watch along, keep an ear out for the intonation and stressing each English speaker uses in their sentences.

Try to figure out what their accent is if you want a fun extra challenge. Are they from Canada? The UK? After a bit of listening, talk along with the speaker, using the transcript so you know what to say. Did you pronounce all the words correctly? Did you stress a function word instead of a content word? Keep practicing and your pronunciation will continue to come together—I promise you! Even though none of them liked how they sounded at first, once they got over that, they saw the importance of this exercise, and how it can make a huge difference.

Did you misuse a word? Mispronounce it? Stress it incorrectly? When speaking with friends and family in English, you can ask them to point out if you make mistakes in your pronunciation. Listening to your recordings will also help you find those mistakes more easily. Whatever errors you made, write them down. More than likely, your original language and English are pretty different. You may find that after having an especially intensive English practice session, your jaw and mouth is sore.

This is natural, but it can really impede your ability to learn. The muscles in your jaw are like those in other parts of your body. Like you do with any workout at the gym, you need to train and strengthen your facial muscles. A good practice routine is reading out loud every single day for at least five minutes. At first, you might only be able to read a paragraph or two from a book or a short article before the pain kicks in. But as you continue training your muscles, you should be able to read and speak much longer without pain or discomfort.

The ELSA app produces short and fun dialogues that you read, then artificial intelligence gives you feedback on your pronunciation instantly. For a more detailed explanation on how to make those three sounds correctly, watch this video from the Woosong University :. Or check out this one from Club English :. There are many other pronunciation guides on YouTube, so look around for one that helps you master the sounds of the language!

Ask them to say a word with that sound, then tell you where they put their tongue. They probably never thought about it before, either!

Words are made up of syllables, or parts. Turning words into parts can make them easier to pronounce. To check how many syllables a word has, place your hand flat just under your chin. Say the word slowly. You can even write the word down in parts. Leave a space or draw a line between each syllable every syllable should have at least one vowel: a, e, i, o, u, y.

Now try saying the word. Say it slowly and pause after each syllable. This website shows you the syllables in any word you look up, and even shows you how to pronounce it. English is a stressed language.

That means some words and sounds are more important than others. You can hear this when you say a word out loud.

This video about six common English mistakes goes over word stress in detail in the first point:. Keep watching the rest of the video for other useful tips for avoiding some of the most common English learner mistakes. Watch this video from mmmEnglish for more information about syllable stress in English:. Sentences have stresses too; some words are more important, and are said with more clarity and strength than the rest of the sentence.

Keep practicing by reading out loud, having conversations and listening well to where others place stress when they speak. Australia or New Zealand? Maybe Canada or South Africa. Choosing your dialect of English is one of the first decisions to make on your English-learning journey. First of all, it will determine much of the vocabulary you learn. For example, English speakers in Ireland use different terms for certain things than English speakers in the United States—especially when it comes to slang.

Choosing which type will affect how you pronounce sounds. Watching movies and TV shows are fantastic ways to learn English and pick up accents. How about English shows?

You can also find learning materials that expose you exclusively to your desired dialect. Take apps, for example. If you want to learn British English, LearnEnglish Sounds Right will provide an English pronunciation guide for people wanting to attain a British accent, and you can download it for your iOS or Android device. Download it at the Apple or Google Play store.

You can also use resources besides apps, and they can be just as useful in helping you get the dialect you want. As you can see, your choice of dialect will affect every other decision you make regarding English pronunciation! Creativa provides premium videos for learning English and business communication skills. Creativa provides entertaining videos, useful but unexpected tips, and goes beyond just English to teach you body language and intonation.

Creativa is a new product from the FluentU team. Creativa offers plenty of other helpful content that you can find very useful in your English studies. Make sure to check it out and give your English skills a boost! Exaggerate the sound until you feel ridiculous. Are you exaggerating to the point that you feel stupid? Believe it or not, exaggerating these sounds will likely make it easier for native speakers to understand you. No, not just the word. Try writing it out phonetically by their sounds instead of their spelling.

Try making flashcards. Write the word on one side, then spell it out phonetically on the other side. This can be especially useful for visual learners! If you need help, visit EasyPronunciation. Type in the word or sentence you need help with, and the website will transcribe it phonetically for you. Bonus—it lets you choose between American and British English! Want to master English pronunciation? Sit down and listen. Listen to someone speak and write down what they are saying.

In my high school French classes, we had to take dictation write what the teacher said every week. Google Translate offers the option of reproducing a text in any language. Even though Google Translate is the fastest tool, there are other tools that are a little more accurate and possibly have a more neutral accent. Websites such as YouTube and SoundCloud offer a wide variety of videos and audio files to help you with the pronunciation of texts.

You just have to train your ear very well and remember to repeat everything exactly as you hear it, with gestures and sounds. The content is designed to allow you to quickly and easily recognise the pronunciation of the words and to practice them at the same time. Writing out the pronunciation of English words is quite a complex task. Phonetics is the part of language that studies how the language sounds. Depending on their phonetics, some letters in words may be silent or sound differently.

It will all depend on the words themselves. Depending on the region, you can learn British English or American English pronunciation. The accent and even some words change between these two types of English. Learning phonetics in English will help you to write down the pronunciation of words much more easily. You can always determine the quality of your pronunciation yourself, but it would be best to seek help from more experienced people.

If those helpers could be teachers or native speakers of the language, it would be much better. No matter what, you can follow these tips :. This technology allows you to record your voice, play it back, and compare it with the correct ways of pronouncing the words. If you want to test your pronunciation even further, you can choose a dialogue that someone else, an actor or a singer, has recorded and imitate it.

You can record your voice and then compare the audios, both of which should sound as similar as possible. Our articles are designed so that, by reading them aloud, you can improve your pronunciation while getting useful tips, guidance, and advice. While you can correct yourself, we recommend you get someone who is experienced in English to correct you.

A person with an advanced knowledge of English will tell you what your mistakes are and how to fix them correctly. At ABA English, we offer private classes with native teachers who will guide you through the process of understanding your own pronunciation.

Through our courses, we offer you all the information you want and need to know. All you have to do is go ahead and take the first step towards learning English. By applying these tips, learning to pronounce in English will be a more enjoyable experience. And, depending on your effort and motivation, it can even be fun. Download our app today to enjoy all our pronunciation resources. How to pronounce words in English. Improve your pronunciation in just one click!

How to improve your English pronunciation The most important way to improve your English pronunciation is to practice.

She should have restocked all her iron and gold; this works with all merchants and is useful for selling that jewelry you stole, ;P. Repeat until you have lots of iron. Also buy some Leather and Leather Strips. Turn all your leather unto strips. You should have an equal amount of Iron Ingots and Leather Strips. Use the materials to make Iron Daggers.

This method will quickly level your Smithing and as well as your character, so be prepared for that. Also, each time you level, it will also be a good idea to pay a visit to a trainer with a skill you don't plan on using much 5 free skill ups with pickpocket.

Farengar occasionally sells Petty Soul Gems filled with souls already. Repeat until you have a good amount of gems. Make sure you have any kind of weapon enchant, if you do not, buy a weapon with an enchant from a vendor and disenchant it to learn it. This will level Enchanting very fast. If you still need iron to level enchanting, buy some each time before selling.

You will actually come out ahead, even more so with lucrative enchants Banish. You will make more of a profit if you use rings and necklaces to enchant, but I find that crafting daggers is faster due to the ease of buying the mats.

Sign up to join this community. The best answers are voted up and rise to the top. Stack Overflow for Teams — Collaborate and share knowledge with a private group.

Create a free Team What is Teams? Learn more. Where can you acquire massive amounts of Soul Gems? Ask Question. Asked 10 years ago. Active 9 years ago. Viewed k times. I would like to buy lots and lots of Soul Gems. Petties etc. It's to train Enchanting. I can't find a reliable source that constantly has a good supply. Improve this question. Layke Layke 2, 8 8 gold badges 24 24 silver badges 32 32 bronze badges. Go to the archeologist in Markarth, he sells soul gems filled and empty and there is a table beside him.

I find the general store in Whiterun often has some, not in great quantities, but a couple once in a while. And the Jarl's mage also has some to sell Though not for sale, clearing out dwarven ruins always provides me with soul gems. As we eluded to above, Soul Gems are used for enchanting weapons and armor or recharging previously enchanted weapons. Soul Gems come in six different variants. The variant of Soul Gem you have will determine what souls can be trapped inside it.

Soul Trapping humanoids is considered a crime in many of Skyrim 's Holds. The Dragonborn must bring a filled black soul gem to Falion in Morthal if they wish to cure themselves of vampirism. Black soul gems can be found randomly in chests , on tables in caves, and also appear as random loot on necromancers , giants , hagravens , Forsworn Briarhearts , and very rarely, draugr.

Additionally, magic anomalies drop black soul gems filled with grand souls. They are also available for purchase from Enthir , a mage of the College of Winterhold, as well as from Falion in Morthal. Each gem is priced at about Black soul gems can also be obtained by mining geode veins , found only in Blackreach.

With Dawnguard , they can also now be made from grand and greater soul gems by activating the Lightning Attractor in the Soul Cairn. The Lightning Attractor cannot be activated a second time. Can only be used for recharging. Frostbite Spider. Giant Frostbite Spider. Wounded Frostbite Spider. Ash Spawn DR. Falmer Gloomlurker. Falmer Nightprowler.

Hulking Draugr DR. Lurker DR. Riekling DR. Seeker DR. Chaurus Hunter DG. Draugr Deathlord. Spriggan Earth Mother DG. Burnt Spriggan DR.

In recent analyses, Kollef and Ward [ 78 ] and Ibrahim et al. Many of the failures in these series reflected infection by P. Risk factors for isolation of these pathogens and so for poor outcomes included previous use of antibacterials and previous hospitalization. Such factors, as well as the likely pathogens and their likely local resistance patterns, should always be taken into account when designing empirical regimens for hospital units.

It should be added that the science of pharmacodynamics is allowing more precise modeling of the probability of cure of a given pathogen in a given infection, underscoring the fact that for many infection types, there is a strong relationship between in vitro susceptibility and outcome. These aspects are addressed elsewhere in this supplement by Drusano [ 80 ]. Complications among patients with peritonitis, in relation to whether initial empirical treatment was appropriate group 1, white ; was changed from inappropriate to appropriate after isolation of resistant bacteria group 2, gray ; or was not changed despite the isolation of resistant bacteria group 3, black.

Data are replotted from Mosdell et al. Differences in wound infection rates do not achieve statistical significance. Average lengths of stay were Reproduced with permission from Ibrahim et al. Increased morbidity and mortality are the most dramatic consequence of resistance. Other effects are more insidious. Physicians and surgeons are forced to use previously reserved agents as first-line therapy.

These may be inherently less potent or more toxic that classical regimens: vancomycin is increasingly used as a first-line antistaphylococcal and for prophylaxis but is less convenient to administer safely and less bactericidal than the semisynthetic antistaphylococcal penicillins, which themselves are fold less active than benzylpenicillin against fully susceptible staphylococci.

Previously reserved agents—now used earlier—may be undermined by resistance. The accumulation of cephalosporin-resistant bacteria is driving the earlier clinical use of carbapenems and is a reasonable justification for the development of oral and long half-life carbapenems. Nevertheless, the selection pressure that mass use of these will cause is disturbing, coming precisely when the number of reported carbapenemases is growing sharply [ 81 ].

Finally, resistance adds cost: treatment failures extend the length of hospital stay or demand repeated physician visits; hospital beds are blocked to new patients, and productive time is lost. If new or hitherto reserved antibacterials are needed as therapy, these are usually more expensive than previous regimens.

These costs seem unlikely to decline in the future, especially with the growing demand of regulators and the new costs of genomics-based drug discovery. Concern about resistance increased in the late s. Since then, many governmental and agency reports have been published, adding to those of professional societies [ 82—84 ]. These reports vary in emphasis, especially as regards the agricultural use of antibacterials, but all advise 1 less use of antibacterials, 2 more appropriate choices of antibacterials and regimens, 3 prevention of cross-infection, and 4 development of new antibacterials.

Measuring the effect of these charges demands better surveillance of resistance prevalence and of prescribing. Optimists hold that it may be possible to reverse resistance trends, and pessimists hold that it may only be possible to slow the accumulation of resistance sufficiently to keep one step ahead of bacterial evolution. In a few cases, reductions in prescribing at a national level have been followed by a reduced prevalence of resistance. In one example of success, the prevalence of penicillin-resistant pneumococci in Iceland was reduced from By , however, macrolide use had increased to 2.

In both these cases, the resistances displaced were associated with clonal strains—two widely disseminated S. Displacement seems more difficult when resistances are multiple and linked and when they have disseminated among different strains. Resistance to streptomycin and chloramphenicol remains frequent in gram-negative bacteria, although these drugs have fallen into virtual disuse in humans, and are compromised by mechanisms that do not directly affect any antibacterial that remains in extensive human use [ 88 ].

The continued prevalence of resistance in disused antibacterials begs the question, Why? Potential contributory factors include continued agricultural use and—as was shown with the sulfonamide resistance in E. More generally, evolution acts to favor those determinants that exert the least fitness cost on their host bacteria and those strain variants in which this cost is minimized.

Thus, once antibacterials have been used heavily for long periods, evolution seems likely to have honed the resistant strains. Laboratory experiments illustrate how this process may arise. Similarly, the growth rate of a streptomycin-resistant E. Such well-adapted strains are unlikely to be swiftly displaced.

Some plasmids have specific binding sites to the chromosome, favoring segregation with each daughter cell. So long as the plasmid is present, antitoxin is manufactured and the cell survives, but residual toxin kills any daughter cell that fails to inherit a plasmid copy [ 91 ]. Such factors maintain plasmid carriage within populations, increasing the pressure to minimize the fitness cost.

It remains plausible but unproven that a generalized reduction in prescribing may lead to a reduction in resistance prevalence. An answer may be forthcoming. Since an annual peak in — the British financial year runs from April to March , antibacterial prescriptions in the community have decreased by Although there are few examples of reducing resistance on any large scale, there are many examples of altered rather than reduced prescribing being followed by changes in the local epidemiology of resistance.

A formulary switch to amikacin was followed, over several years, by declining gentamicin resistance among opportunistic gram-negative bacteria [ 92 , 93 ]. More recently, Bradley et al. A return to empirical ceftazidime was followed by a reemergence of vancomycin-resistant enterococci, despite continued emphasis on infection control.

Other examples of apparent success include reductions in the prevalence of AmpC-derepressed Enterobacter spp. Incidence of colonization and infection with vancomycin-resistant enterococci in a London hematology unit in relation to preferred empirical therapy.

These examples highlight positive consequence, but caveats should be noted. First, changes that achieve positive consequences are perhaps more likely to be reported than those that fail to do so. Second, others who followed these strategies were not always so successful.

Formulary switches from gentamicin to amikacin have been associated with increasing amikacin resistance [ 99 ]. Third, authors often concentrate on one pathogen and demote other effects; thus, deaths owing to multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacteria occurred in both the ceftazidime and piperacillin-tazobactam arms of the study outlined in table 5 [ 94 ], and a formulary switch from cephalosporins to imipenem was followed by the emergence of imipenem-resistant Acinetobacter and P.

Among opportunistic infections in the seriously ill, the cynic can argue that resistance is like a balloon: squeeze it on one side, and it bulges on the other. It is salutary to emphasize how much remains unknown. Does drug cycling have positive effects, or does it lead to the accumulation of multidrug-resistant strains [ ]? At what prevalence of resistance should empirical therapy be changed in different types of infection? To what extent does combination therapy militate against resistance except in the case of tuberculosis, where its value is beyond dispute?

What are the relative selectivities of different antibacterials, allowing that a recent Finnish study found a correlation between macrolide use and resistance in S. Is it in any way desirable to encourage all community physicians to use the same therapies in the same indications, or is it wiser to make the selection pressure more diffuse [ ]? What is the ideal duration of therapy, allowing that underdosing may fail to eliminate the least susceptible members of the original population and that excessive duration may exacerbate disruption of the normal flora?

Are drugs with unlinked resistances e. The new respiratory quinolones exemplify a further conundrum. As a result of greater antipneumococcal activity, they are less likely to than ciprofloxacin to select first-step quinolone-resistant mutants of S. The scientific answers to these questions on antibacterial use are uncertain, and to complicate matters, the whole problem of resistance is intertwined with moral, social, political, and commercial issues.

Concern about resistance is used as ammunition for other agendas, most obviously including marketing by the pharmaceutical industry and cost containment within managed or socialized health care. To some extent, the individual patient gains when powerful antibacterials are used early, but the resistance risks for society are raised.

In reality, matters are complex. Hungary, before , had a restricted list of antibacterials for community prescription, yet achieved one of the world's highest prevalence rates for penicillin-resistant pneumococci [ ]. Moreover, the argument assumes a vacuum in which no new drugs are developed. This assumption, made in many reports on resistance, is already untrue for gram-positive pathogens [ ]. Concerns about resistance have led to the banning of most agricultural growth promoters in Europe.

Such concerns are also used to support wider objections to intensive farming and to the genetic modification of crop plants where unexpressed resistance genes remain within the cloning vectors. Less is said on the other aspects of modern life that potentially exacerbate resistance: large hospitals; the concentration of the very young and very old in socialized care; and increasing travel.

Action on these would be socially and politically impossible, even if they are more pertinent to the sum total of resistance than the use recently banned in the European Union of zinc bacitracin as a agricultural growth promoter! Both concerns are ethical, humane, and honorable—but counterpoised. Antibacterial resistance is complex and dynamic. Although the major genetic and biochemical mechanisms have long been recognized, new factors continue to be discovered, including integrons, multidrug efflux, hypermutability, and plasmid addiction.

Within many individual isolates, the complexity of resistance is increasing, with multiple determinants carried, and with genes being gained, amplified, and lost. Many international resistance problems reflect the spread of a few multidrug-resistant strains, but the reasons underlying the success of particular lineages remain almost universally obscure. Resistance is a significant cause of excess morbidity, mortality, and cost.

Numerous reports have emphasized the need for less and better use of antibacterials, improved infection control, and the development of new agents. However, reductions in antibacterial use do not always lead to reduced resistance, perhaps because bacteria are now well adapted to the carriage of resistance.

Download data: Drug-resistant C. Also known as: C. Download data: C. About : CRE are a major concern for patients in healthcare facilities. Some Enterobacterales are resistant to nearly all antibiotics, leaving more toxic or less effective treatment options. About : N. Download data: Drug-resistant N.

About: Campylobacter usually causes diarrhea often bloody , fever, and abdominal cramps, and can spread from animals to people through contaminated food, especially raw or undercooked chicken. About: Dozens of Candida species—a group of fungi—cause infections, ranging from mild oral and vaginal yeast infections to severe invasive infections. Many are resistant to the antifungals used to treat them. They can spread rapidly and cause or complicate infections in healthy people.

Estimated cases in hospitalized patients in : , About: Enterococci can cause serious infections for patients in healthcare settings, including bloodstream, surgical site, and urinary tract infections. About: P. Download data: Multidrug-resistant P. About: Nontyphoidal Salmonella can spread from animals to people through food, and usually causes diarrhea, fever, and abdominal cramps. Some infections spread to the blood and can have life-threatening complications.

About: Salmonella Typhi causes a serious disease called typhoid fever, which can be life-threatening. Most people in the U. About: Shigella spreads in feces through direct contact or through contaminated surfaces, food, or water. Most people with Shigella infections develop diarrhea, fever, and stomach cramps. About : S. MRSA can cause difficult-to-treat staph infections because of resistance to some antibiotics.

Abstract The ongoing explosion of antibiotic-resistant infections continues to plague global and US health care. Open in new tab Download slide. Antimicrobial resistance: a growing threat to public health.

Google Scholar PubMed. Google Scholar Crossref. Search ADS. Bad bugs, no drugs: as antibiotic discovery stagnates, a public health crisis brews. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus disease in three communities.

Necrotizing fasciitis caused by community-associated methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Los Angeles.

Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in community-acquired skin infections. Methicillin-resistant S. Staphylococcal resistance revisited: community-acquired methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus —an emerging problem for the management of skin and soft tissue infections.

A clone of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus among professional football players. Prospective comparison of risk factors and demographic and clinical characteristics of community-acquired, methicillin-resistant versus methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus infection in children.

Clinical implications and treatment of multiresistant Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Streptococcus pneumoniae and community-acquired pneumonia: a cause for concern. Resistance of Streptococcus pneumoniae to fluoroquinolones—United States, — Comparison of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae susceptibilities from community-acquired respiratory tract infections and hospitalized patients with pneumonia: five-year results for the SENTRY antimicrobial surveillance program.

Macrolide resistance among invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae isolates. Levofloxacin treatment failure in a patient with fluoroquinolone-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae pneumonia. Increasing prevalence of multidrug-resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae in the United States. Heaton, tuberculosis, and artificial pneumothorax: once again, back to the future?

Role of surgery in multi-drug-resistant tuberculosis: results of 27 cases. Therapeutic pneumothorax—an effective adjuvant method in treating multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. Surgery increased the chance of cure in multi-drug resistant pulmonary tuberculosis.

High rates of multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Sinaloa State, Mexico. Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis in Hmong refugees resettling from Thailand into the United States, — Multidrug resistance among persons with tuberculosis in California, — Multi-drug resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa outbreak in a burns unit—an infection control study. Intravenous colistin as therapy for nosocomial infections caused by multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter baumannii.

Outbreaks of multi-drug resistant Escherichia coli in long-term care facilities in the Durham, York and Toronto regions of Ontario, — Resistance in nonfermenting gram-negative bacteria: multidrug resistance to the maximum. Clonal occurrences of multidrug-resistant gram-negative bacilli: report from the Meropenem Yearly Susceptibility Test Information Collection Surveillance Program in the United States Multi-resistant gram-negative organisms in Maryland: a statewide survey of resistant Acinetobacter baumannii.

Trends in antimicrobial resistance in health care-associated pathogens and effect on treatment. The epidemiological profile of infections with multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter species. Microbial threats to health: emergence, detection, and response. Washington, DC: Institute of Medicine. Bad bugs need drugs: an update on the development pipeline from the Antimicrobial Availability Task Force of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

Geneva: World Health Organization. Alteration of oceanic volcanic glass: textural evidence of microbial activity. Microbiology in the 21st century: where are we and where are we going?. Microfossils of the Early Archean Apex chert: new evidence of the antiquity of life. Early Archean 3. Bad bugs, no drugs: a failing police action i. NOT a war. In: Harold C. Neu Conference Scottsdale, AZ. Extending the cure: policy responses to the growing threat of antibiotic resistance.

Antibiotic effectiveness as a natural resource. July 19, Resources for the future. Open public forum. Silver Spring, MD. Bioterrorism and Public Health Preparedness Subcommittee. Anti-infective research and development—problems, challenges, and solutions.

Developing drugs for treatment. The year in medicine from A to Z: it was a year of old scourges and new drugs, from the first vaccine that prevents cancer to a bug that spoiled an entire crop of California spinach.

New drug development: science, business, regulatory, and intellectual property issues cited as hampering drug development efforts. Report GAO Societal costs versus savings from wild-card patent extension legislation to spur critically needed antibiotic development.

Legislation promoted as a countermeasure against bioterrorism would counter bipartisan measures to constrain prescription costs. Infectious Diseases Society of America and the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America guidelines for developing an institutional program to enhance antimicrobial stewardship.

Issue Section:. Download all slides. Comments 0. Add comment Close comment form modal. I agree to the terms and conditions. You must accept the terms and conditions. Add comment Cancel. Submit a comment. As with addressing climate change, protecting biodiversity, or COVID, global cooperation is needed to reduce the evolution and spread of resistance.

The two experts concluded that once better hygiene and sanitary conditions exist on a global scale, our dependence on antibiotics will be reduced as a result of greater access to clean water. The World Health Organisation WHO has recently published new recommendations for tackling the spread of antimicrobial resistance.

Microbiology News. Homepage Blog listing Antimicrobial resistance: the next pandemic?

Home What is Realty Drama? Follow twitter. What Happened to Sandra Rinomato? About Realty Drama. Posted June 8, at PM. Posted June 17, at PM. Teri A Pilot. I did finally come to like her and appreciate her real estate savvy. Oh no! My husband and I loved Sandra Rinamato! Hope her new show is carried by Verizon where we live DC area. I will truly miss Sandra. I think that she was great.

She seemed to genuinely care for the people who were having difficulty understanding the buying process, obtaining the house of their dreams, or making up their minds on a house. She was very pleasant, professional, and came across as a sincere human being.

Bring her new show to US. I,like so many, watched the show Property Virgins,because Sandra was the host. We really liked your plain talk and no-nonsense approach. Hope to see your new show! As a Real Estate agent, I really liked the show and Sandra. She gave the advice I give first time home buyers. It was the most realistic. The new show is missing something. I just found out tonight and came across your post after some quick research. I am truly sorry to see Sandra leave.

I have enjoyed her smile and warmth. I hope we can catch her new show. I loved property virgins and thought sandra made the show, i sure will miss her, hope her new show gets on hgtv here in the states! I miss you Sandra. You brought positivity and great information to viewers. Good Luck. I see hope our new show is aired in the US so we can see your smiling face again. I will miss you too Sandra. You were my favorite HGTV host because you are so natural and straightforward on screen.

Your interactions with clients never seemed forced or fake. I hope that your new show is picked up in the US! I loved Sandra in this show!

I think she is a poor substitute. Sandra was the reason I watched. She is who I would want as my realtor. I will be waiting for the US to pick up her new show or to put her back on Property Virgin. Until then, I will find other shows to watch. I really enjoyed watching Property Virgins….

I watched every chance I could….. You made that show enjoyable with your bubbly personality…. I will look forward to seeing your new show….. I am outside the US and Canada but I loved to see the show just like the most of you, just because of Sandra.

Her personality is so magnetic and also made the show very dinamic. I hope her new show makes the transition to the US market soon. Egypt may be excellent on the radio but she can never be Sandra. I,m going to miss Sandra on property virgins. Shes delightful and very professional as well as her personality.

Hope the USA will pick up her new series for sure. I was not happy to see that Sandra is no longer on Property Virgins. However, if we can see her in a new format, that would be great and reason to continue watching HGTV. When will her show be on in the US. This was one of my favorite show. I love Sandra as host. Although I like Sandra, I think that Egypt will do just fine.

There are two different styles, but I think that Egypt brings a different dynamic to the show. You gotta think, Sandra was on this show for 10 years, so over that timeframe, the show was patterned to her style.

Sometimes change is good as well as necessary. I wish Sandra all the best in this new endeavor but there clearly will be a void in the program without her. She made the show!!! Loved Sandra for her personality and knowledge. I am unable to watch the new episodes now…. As a homeowner who has bought over 7 houses, I learned a lot from each show from Sandra. She is Property Virgins! I wish we had her to help us in each house we bought!

She is going to be missed and cannot be replaced!!! Come back Sandra!!! The show is one of my favorites. The new show host is terrible and unwatchable. Sandra made the show. I was wondering what had happened to Sandra! Sandra you will be missed! Really enjoyed your show. As a former Torontonian living in the States, I always loved seeing the Toronto housing landscape! Wish you all the best with your new show…and yes, I hope it gets picked up in the States!

I like most everyone else on here, is so sorry to see Sandra leave the show. We loved her. Watched part of one episode of new person, switched it fast. No good at all. My husband and I was were not happy to see that Sandra is no longer on Property Virgins.

It is hard to watch Property Virgins as it is not the same, but we will try to give Egypt a chance. We really hope the U. She is a asset to HGTV. Gary and Becky Holleran. I am so disappointed to realize that Sandra will not be on Property Virgins…I will wait and hope that the network will be picking up her new show!

Lots of success to you.. I was shocked to hear Sandra was leaving. I will give Egypt a chance, but I certainly will miss Sandra. She is a beautiful lady. I wish you the best Sandra and hope to see you back on TV real soon. To her surprise, she landed the job. Fast forward to only four episodes into Sherrod's pilot season, when she got another life-changing surprise: she was pregnant! Terrified that HGTV would terminate her contract if they found out, she hid her burgeoning bump.

And I wanted my baby, and I wanted my happiness, but I wanted my dream too. To the network's credit, the show certainly seems to do its part to encourage and empower women. After all, both of the hosts — Sandra Rinomato and Sherrod — have been strong, smart, outspoken females. It's the kind of thing that only seems to happen in the movies — a grad student scrolling Craigslist ads for work comes across a job listing that seems too good to be true.

Her idol is hiring, and she applies. Sounds like something straight out of Hollywood, right? Only, in this case, it's Alexandra Cote's life. When she came across Sandra Rinomato's listing for a part-time administrator at Rinomato's Toronto brokerage, Cote was a huge fan of Property Virgins.

So, understandably, she couldn't help but pinch herself over her good fortune. It kind of felt like destiny. Destiny, indeed. Cote would go on to be mentored by Rinomato, coin the term "Property Coach," and earn the honor of being voted the Toronto area's best real estate agent she still works at Sandra Rinomato Realty. Plus, judging by her Instagram , her relationship with her mentor has evolved from all business into a bona fide friendship.

The running joke when it comes to Property Virgins is that every potential homebuyer or homebuying couple on the show seems to have a disproportionately massive budget in comparison to their vocation. Like, really, Dan the goldfish farmer, how can you afford a half-a-million-dollar home? C'mon, Susan, you're telling us you lick stamps for a living but you're paying cash for that McMansion?

All joking aside, when you consider how much money host Egypt Sherrod reportedly makes, it doesn't seem too illogical that her clientele would be wealthy. While some of that worth undoubtedly comes from Sherrod's other business enterprises — radio spots, guest speaking gigs, her book — it doesn't negate the fact that she likely takes home a pretty decent paycheck for her work as Property Virgins ' resident guru.

Despite other HGTV shows drawing fire in recent years for being "staged," Property Virgins has managed to stay above the fray. Well, actually, according to Rinomato, there's at least one aspect of the show that isn't always percent authentic. Speaking to Crasstalk in , Rinomato revealed that the houses the show's property virgins tour onscreen aren't exactly their top picks.

Sometimes, they aren't the potential homeowners' picks at all. When they can't get permission, says Rinomato, they still have to film. You have to see what you don't like before you realize what you really love.

O wretched state! O bosom black as death! O limed soul, that, struggling to be free, Art more engaged! Help, angels! Make assay! Bow, stubborn knees; and, heart with strings of steel, Be soft as sinews of the newborn babe! All may be well. Bow, stubborn knees, and heart with strings of steel,. Be soft as sinews of the newborn babe!

All may be well. Now might I do it pat. Now he is praying,. And now I'll do't. And so he goes to heaven,. And so I am revenged? That would be scanned. A villain kills my father and for that,. I, his sole son, do this same villain send. To heaven. Oh, this is hire and salary , not revenge. He took my father grossly , full of bread,. With all his crimes broad blown , as flush as May,. And how his audit stands, who knows, save heaven?

But in our circumstance and course of thought ,. And am I then revenged,. To take him in the purging of his soul,. When he is fit and seasoned for his passage? Up, sword, and know thou a more horrid hent. When he is drunk asleep, or in his rage ,. Or in th' incestuous pleasure of his bed,. At game , swearing, or about some act. Then trip him, that his heels may kick at heaven,. And that his soul may be as damned and black. As hell, whereto it goes. My mother stays. This physic but prolongs thy sickly days.

My words fly up, my thoughts remain below. Words without thoughts never to heaven go. On the bat's back I do fly After summer merrily: Merrily, merrily, shall I live now, Under the blossom that hangs on the bough.

Oh, why should the spirit of mortal be proud? Like a swift-fleeing meteor, a fast-flying cloud, A flash of the Lightning, a break of the wave, Man passes from life to his rest in the grave. The leaves of the oak and the willow shall fade, Be scattered around and together be laid; And the young and the old, and the low and the high, Shall molder to dust and together shall lie.

The maid, on whose cheek, on whose brow, in whose eye, Shone beauty and pleasure——her triumphs are by; And the memories of those who have loved her and praised Are alike from the minds of the living erased. The hand of the king that the scepter hath borne, The brow of the priest that the miter hath worn, The eye of the sage, and the heart of the brave, Are hidden and lost in the depth of the grave.

The peasant, whose lot was to sow and to reap, The herdsman, who climbed with his goats up the steep, The beggar, who wandered in search of his bread, Have faded away like the grass that we tread.

The saint, who enjoyed the communion of Heaven, The sinner, who dared to remain unforgiven, The wise and the foolish, the guilty and just, Have quietly mingled their bones in the dust. So the multitude goes, like the flower or the weed, That withers away to let others succeed; So the multitude comes, even those we behold, To repeat every tale that has often been told. For we are the same that our fathers have been; We see the same sights that our fathers have seen; We drink the same stream, and we view the same sun, And run the same course that our fathers have fun.

The thoughts we are thinking, our fathers would think; From the death that we shrink from, our fathers would shrink; To the life that we cling to, they also would cling; But it speeds for us all, like a bird on the wing.

They loved, but the story we can not unfold; They scorned, but the heart of the haughty is cold: They grieved, but no wail from their slumbers will come; They joyed, but the tongue of their gladness is dumb.

They died——ah! National Poetry Month. Materials for Teachers Teach This Poem. Poems for Kids. Poetry for Teens. Lesson Plans. Resources for Teachers. Academy of American Poets. And, as you said and wisely was it said 'Tis meet that some more audience than a mother— Since nature makes them partial—should o'erhear The speech, of vantage.

Fare you well, my liege. Oh, my offence is rank. It smells to heaven. Pray can I not. Is there not rain enough in the sweet heavens To wash it white as snow?

Emily arrives to see them departing together. Ross realizes what it looks like and chases his wife, leaving Rachel alone on the plane to Greece. Rachel is so frustrated with her past love life decisions that she decides to leave her future ones to Monica.

Monica sets her up with a handsome man, Dave, who frequents Central Perk. Seeing a depressed Ross on the couch, Rachel decides to blow her date off and console Ross with the goal of telling him her feelings. Despite warnings from Monica and Joey, she does tell him, but she realizes the absurdity of the statement. After laughing hysterically, Ross is at first offended thinking that it was a mean joke, but when she assures him that it was genuine and continuing to laugh at herself, Ross begins to see the humor in his own pain and makes jokes about not knowing his wife's whereabouts since the wedding.

Rachel calms down and wants to be sure that things will not now be weird between the two of them, noting that he is married to Emily. He reassures her and says "it's always nice to hear that somebody loves you" and they hug.

Emily agrees to come to New York and work on her marriage with Ross under one condition: that he never sees Rachel again.

When she finds out what he agreed to, she gets mad at him, and fears that like Chandler's old roommate Kip, she will be forced to leave the group because Ross has a stronger claim to Monica and Chandler, although Rachel upsets Phoebe by saying she always thought she'd be the one to leave.

Rachel does however persuade Phoebe to agree to start a new group, and Phoebe wants Joey to come as well. Ross gets wind of something being up from Monica and tells Rachel that if anyone has to leave the group, it will be him because his actions and choices led to the situation that they are in " The One With The Kips ".

Rachel tells Ross that she does not feel any better because she still will not be able to see him. When he does see her one last time and tells Emily over the phone about her presence in the room, Emily is angry but says that things will be better when she comes and can know where he is at all times. Thrown by this comment, Ross tells Emily that she will have to have some trust in him if they are going to stay married. Upon realizing that she cannot trust him, they decide to divorce.

Rachel dates a new neighbor named Danny who she fogged in " The One With The Yeti " , even though she has played hardball. She finds it disturbing that he and his sister are close on the border of incest, so she dumps him. Rachel decides that her New Year's Resolution will be not to gossip, but she is pushed to the limit when she finds out about Chandler and Monica's secret relationship " The One With All The Resolutions ".

She decides to confront them. After hearing Monica telling Chandler how hard it is to lie to her, she reconsiders. Her fashion tips, which are supposed to help him get an audition, are the reason why he doesn't get the part when he has a hard time abandoning the bag as the director requested. Phoebe and Rachel are looking over the apartment across the street that Ross hopes to sublet from the ugly naked guy.

Phoebe tries to catch the attention of Monica and Chandler across the street and is horrified to see them kissing and pulling off each other's clothes. They conspire to make their lives miserable in various ways to mess with them for keeping secrets--much to the chagrin of Joey who is tired of keeping the secret himself.

When Monica says that she will go do laundry when she is really sneaking away to be with Chandler , Rachel gives her a huge bag of dirty clothes to throw in. Phoebe aggressively hits on Chandler until he can't keep up with the ruse and admits to loving Monica. They still don't want Ross to know, but due to their unfortunate habit of never closing the drapes, he finds out while showing his boss from the museum that he is getting his life back in order.

Rachel goes to a furniture store with Ross to help him pick out a new couch for his apartment. She is angered and embarrassed when Ross, who is irritated when an employee implies that Rachel is way out of Ross' league, informs the employee that they had sex times when they were dating. She and Chandler try to help transport the couch to Ross' apartment, although they don't succeed and the couch ends up being sawed in half.

Rachel gets a job interview at Ralph Lauren, but she accidentally kisses her interviewer. In a second interview, she blows him off by misinterpreting a gesture that he makes as a sexual innuendo. In the end, he hires her. Rachel causes further embarrassment when she reaches out to shake her new boss' hand, only to accidentally grab his crotch " The One With Rachel's Inadvertent Kiss ".

Rachel tries to smoke to fit in with her new colleague and boss, Kim. They leave her out anyway, and she stops smoking. In order to prove that she was over Ross, Rachel sets him up on a date because he tries and fails to flirt with the pizza delivery girl. When everyone but Ross and Rachel leaves for Vegas, Rachel walks around the apartment naked and accidentally catches Ross' attention. Seeing her naked makes him assume she wants sex with him, a fact that she denies when he comes over.

This is the cause of a continuous series of pranks they play on each other. This results in them getting married in Vegas while drunk, waking up in bed together and their faces painted with Sharpie. Rachel settles for an annulment, leaving Ross to take care of the details. Ross doesn't want another divorce and cannot get the annulment, so he stays married to Rachel until she finds out " The One Where Joey Loses His Insurance ".

Rachel takes care of the forms, albeit in an extravagant manner which makes Ross appear to be a gay heroin addict. They argue and Ross' revelations about their history as a couple make the judge determine that they do not qualify for an annulment and must get a divorce instead.

When signing the papers that a still angry Ross has brought over, Rachel confesses to him that this divorce is actually her fault, as she was the one to drunkenly suggest the marriage. Rachel has to face another hard reality: Chandler is moving in with Monica.

At first, Rachel is jovial and suggests that they are "Three's Company," but becomes sad when it is revealed Chandler and Monica would like to live alone. Rachel, however, understands and is still happy for them, but it hurts Monica's feelings because she expected Rachel to be sad. It is later revealed that Rachel didn't take the news seriously because they almost got married in Vegas, and since they didn't, she doesn't think this would happen either.

Rachel finally accepts the reality of not having Monica as her roommate and makes arrangements to live with Ross until learning they're still married when she agrees to move in with Phoebe. Her stay is cut short by a fire in the apartment, and she moves in with Monica and Chandler, then Joey, until their apartment is fixed. Rachel is pointed out to be a push-over in this season, a fact which makes Phoebe prefer her as a lesbian date to high-maintenance Monica.

Ross realizes that nothing can happen between him and Rachel in the future if something happens between him and Jill, so he prevents anything from happening with Jill. This is not only the key to Rachel forgiving Ross, but also the cue for Chandler to cry. Rachel begins a relationship with Paul Stevens , the father of Ross' girlfriend, Elizabeth. Chandler wanted to propose to Monica, and when Phoebe walked into to their apartment while Chandler was looking at ring brochures, he decided to tell Phoebe about his plan and keep it a secret from The Gang.

Despite stating that she isn't jealous of Monica and Chandler's engagement, Rachel agrees to have a " bonus night " with Ross.

They begin kissing in the hallway when Monica walks in on them. This leads to Monica canceling the celebrations of her engagement, as she is tired of Rachel stealing the spotlight. Phoebe decides to let Monica and Chandler choose what she gets for them as a present for their engagement. Monica becomes obsessed with acquiring Phoebe's secret cookie recipe.

Meanwhile, since Joey won the boat from the silent auction, Rachel decides to train Joey to sail his boat. Rachel is promoted to Merchandising Manager for polo retail at Ralph Lauren, a position which allows her to hire a personal assistant. This is how she meets Tag, her young, gorgeous boyfriend " The One With Rachel's Assistant " who she dates, despite warnings from her boss. She spends the night with Tag in the office, looking for important contracts to Milan which she did not send out.

To save face, she prefers to blame Tag for the mistake. Rachel is portrayed as having something of a sweet tooth, sharing several cheesecakes with Chandler and even eating the last of them off the hallway floor.

When Joey is nominated for a Soapie award, Rachel is the only one of the girls to know what a Soapie is. Joey invites her to the awards ceremony, and Rachel admits that she uses a shampoo bottle in the shower to practice her acceptance speech after winning a Grammy.

Rachel is reunited with Melissa , the girl who she kissed passionately back in senior year in college. Due to Phoebe's disbelief and Melissa's denial, Rachel kisses Melissa so she wouldn't lose " the one wild thing she had ever done " away from her. Melissa mistakenly believes that Rachel is attracted to her and she feels comfortable enough to express her attraction to Rachel, stating, " Oh my god! You love me ". Shocked, Rachel rejects her. Embarrassed, Melissa hails a cab and proposes to Rachel a " kiss goodbye?

Phoebe then kisses Rachel heartily and Rachel says; " What the hell was that? Rachel asks how it was and she responds by saying that she's " had better. In the morning before Chandler and Monica's wedding, Phoebe and Rachel find a positive pregnancy test in the bathroom trash.

Phoebe thinks it's Monica's, but as Chandler and Monica share their first married kiss, the camera zooms in on a perplexed Rachel, implying she is the one who's pregnant. Later on, she confesses her pregnancy to Chandler. Finally, she tells Ross that he is the father. During the sonogram, she doesn't see the baby at first. Ross helps her and she realizes that she had seen the baby but didn't know and thanked Ross for giving the blessing to her.

The baby was conceived during their passionate one night stand when they were both vulnerable, being that Rachel was jealous of Monica's engagement, and Ross hadn't had sex in six months. Wanting to maintain a love life, Rachel goes out with a soap opera actor named Kash Ford.

When she tells him that she's pregnant, Kash blows her off. On the verge of telling Ross that she is considering rekindling their relationship, she is blown off when she sees Ross talking to Mona at the coffee-house. Feeling that Ross needs to be more involved with Rachel's pregnancy, Joey suggests that Rachel move in with Ross which they agree with but this saddens him. Rachel becomes the source of Joey's attraction, and possibly only love, which he confesses to the others.

Joey's confession of love is rejected by Rachel, who does not think of him that way. During Thanksgiving dinner, Rachel is reunited with Will Colbert. Will, who used to be overweight, is now a handsome man who has hated Rachel since high school. It was formed by only three people, one of whom was a foreign exchange student who didn't know what the club was about.

Will and Ross spread a rumor that Rachel was a hermaphrodite. Enraged, Rachel tells everyone that she knows about Ross and the librarian he made out with. During Rachel's labor, Ross' mom gives him her grandmother's engagement ring to give to Rachel.

Ross takes it but does not plan to propose. At the end of the episode, the ring falls out from Ross' jacket pocket and Joey picks it up and shows it to Rachel, but when he showed it to her, she said "Yes", thinking he was proposing, only to find out later it was nothing.

Things start to change when Ross, who has agreed to not date anyone, learns that Rachel gave her number to a man at a bar that she met on a girl's night out with Phoebe. Things for Rachel get even more complicated when she kisses her new colleague Gavin , during her birthday party; a kiss which Ross sees from his apartment " The One With Phoebe's Rats ". However, Rachel is still unsure about that.

She decides to talk to Ross about it, but when he brings home a rebound date, she becomes so angry that she moves in with Joey. As time goes by, Rachel becomes interested in Joey. She dreams that she's helping Joey study his lines, but is completely turned on by him.

She kisses him, at which point the dream ends. Because of her jealousy, Rachel mostly maintains a cold rapport with Charlie. This lasts until Charlie breaks up with Joey in Barbados, so she can be with Ross. Rachel admits that she's interested in Joey, which causes his feelings for her to resurface. They decide to speak with Ross before doing anything that could possibly jeopardize their friendship with him.

However, Joey sees Ross and Charlie kissing, gets angry that Ross did not clear it with him first, and he walks slowly and steadily to Rachel's room and knocks on her door.

When Rachel opens the door, Joey kisses her. Rachel and Joey are now a couple, although they have no idea how they are going to tell Ross about their relationship. This problem is solved when Ross walks in on them kissing. It is made clear that Ross is not taking this well, but he announces that he will support them anyway.

After talking to Chandler, Rachel and Joey decide that if they are having such a hard time progressing their relationship, it must not be meant to be, musing that perhaps they are just better friends than Chandler and Monica were and each telling the other "I love you.

Rachel focuses more and more on her daughter, throwing a party to celebrate her child's first birthday and insisting that everyone in the group abandon their plans to all be there for this momentous occasion.

Later on, she and Ross are horrified when they discover that Amy got Emma's ears pierced. Rachel enters her daughter in a baby beauty contest, which Emma wins. Rachel comes to believe that Chandler is having an affair after seeing him with a woman. In reality, the woman that Chandler is with is a real estate agent: Chandler and Monica are looking for a house, to start a new family.

Rachel's father has a heart attack, and the stress causes Rachel to turn to Ross for sympathy sex. He rejects her offer because he doesn't want to take advantage of her in her time of grieving, but instead she feels angry and embarrassed, causing him to then declare that from now on, sex is "off the table".

However, she informs him that, "With us, it's never off the table". When her boss at Ralph Lauren catches her interviewing for another job, Rachel is fired. Ross asked Rachel why she did it and she admitted she still had feelings for him and found it hard seeing him with other women. While Ross broke up with Bonnie, Rachel wrote Ross a letter, asking him to take responsibility for their break-up. However, Ross fell asleep while reading it, and later bluffed agreement.

He later read the letter again and realized Rachel wanted him to take full responsibility for the problems they had while dating. Ross strongly disagreed but tried to accept it but later in bed, Rachel said she was glad she didn't take her mother's advice and Ross snapped.

They had another row about him sleeping with someone else and they broke up again. Rachel's history of admitting her feelings for Ross when he is with another woman happened again when Ross met Emily, niece of Rachel's boss at Bloomingdale's.

Ross and Emily got engaged after a month and planned to marry in London. Rachel did not accept their invitation to go, claiming she had to work but later confided in Monica and Phoebe that watching them marry would be too painful. However, she changed her mind and flew to London to tell Ross that she loved him but sees them kissing just before the ceremony.

She gave them her blessing instead. Ross then accidentally said Rachel's name at the alter. When Emily did not go to the airport their honeymoon, Ross invited Rachel to accompany him instead. However, Emily witnessed them boarding the plane together and ran away. Ross went after her. When Rachel returned from Greece , she was determined to tell Ross how she felt, despite Monica trying to persuade her not to.

She told him but realized how funny it sounded, leaving Ross confused about the state of his marriage. Ultimately his marriage ended, when Emily decided that she could not trust Ross. Later, on a trip to Las Vegas , the two get married after getting drunk together. The morning after, they wake up and, not remembering the events of the night before, wonder why they are in bed together. They remember when they meet their friends for breakfast.

They divorce as the marriage can't be annulled, due to false information in the paperwork and their previous relationship. Consequently, they must file for divorce, and when Rachel signs the papers, she admits that it was her idea to get married. At one point, Phoebe had backup plans with Joey and Ross; should she be single at 40, she would marry one of them. Rachel also wanted a backup and approached Ross, suggesting the same thing but Ross tells Rachel that he already has a backup "wife", Phoebe.

This leaves Rachel mad at Phoebe for having more than one. In the end, they agree that in that event, Rachel will marry Ross and Phoebe will marry Joey. Rachel and Ross had a baby at the end of Season 8, named Emma. She was conceived after a one-night stand during Season 7. Although Ross wanted to get married, they stayed friends and lived together to raise Emma until a big argument, after which Rachel and Emma moved back in with Joey.

In Season 10, Rachel is fired by Ralph Lauren and as she leaves, bumps into her old colleague Mark, and they go out for dinner.

At first Ross is jealous, until she tells him that Mark is now married with twins. Ross then says 'Oh Should we send a card'. When she returns to Monica's apartment, she tells Ross and the rest of the group that Mark offered her a job - in Paris.

Everyone is mostly surprised and happy for her but Ross is distraught, and Joey freaks out about how everything is changing.

Ross, upset at losing Rachel and Emma, bribes her boss to offer her her job back twice but she decides to go to Paris. At her going-away party, she says goodbye to everyone except Ross and they have a fight and Ross is upset about how Rachel wants things to end between them. Rachel tells him that she can't say goodbye because if she thinks about leaving, then she'll want to stay because Ross is so important to her. After the fight, they sleep together.

In the morning, Ross thinks they are back together and is stunned when Rachel says "it was the perfect way to say goodbye," leaving Ross devastated and hurt. He chases her to the airport but finds out upon arrival that he went to the wrong airport. Ross goes home, heartbroken, to find a message from Rachel on his answering machine telling him that she loves him too. The line cuts off, leaving Ross wondering if she got off the plane when Rachel comes into the apartment saying, "I got off the plane".

The two make up, and start dating again in the end of the series. Their last scenes are Rachel and Ross holding hands and hugging Monica, who is distraught about moving in the last episode. All the Friends season finales including the series finale except for Season 6 involves a Ross and Rachel storyline. Ross and Rachel's daughter is born in Season 8. Rachel's pregnancy was revealed in the season finale of Season 7. Monica told Rachel that she planned to name her future daughter Emma and her future son Daniel and gave Rachel permission to use it.

She is referred to as "Ella" by Amy, Rachel's sister. Rachel proved to be a protective mother and was furious when Amy got Emma's ears pierced without permission. When Friends premiered in , Cox, who played Monica Gellar on the sitcom, was 30 years old. Cox last appeared onscreen in Modern Family , and is set to reprise her iconic role as Gale Weathers in the new Scream movie.

Kudrow, who was known on Friends as Phoebe Buffay, was 31 years old when the show first aired. Now, the actor is 51 years old. Now, he is 53 years old. From time to time, she dives into the world's most popular franchises but Kara primarily focuses on evergreen topics.

The fact that she gets to write about The Office regularly is like a dream come true. After graduating college, writing began as a part-time hobby for Kara but it quickly turned into a career. She loves binging a new series and watching movies ranging from Hollywood blockbusters to hidden indie gems. She also has a soft spot for horror ever since she started watching it at too young of an age. When Kara's not busy writing, you can find her doing yoga or hanging out with Gritty.

By Kara Hedash Published Dec 02, Share Share Tweet Email 0. Related Topics SR Originals friends.

Instead of writing out "Facebook friend" in its entirety, people began using the "fbf" abbreviation instead. Fbf is primarily reserved for friends on Facebook that you are not friends with in real life IRL. You may have not even met an fbf in real life. Examples of fbfs include a distant relative, a friend of your mom or dad's, a friend of one of your friends, or a rando that is facestalking you. Sometimes fbfs can be extra and just too much to handle on a daily basis, especially when you are scrollaxing.

In these cases, you can unfollow the fbf or unfriend them altogether. It may sometimes be used on Facebook or Twitter as well. For example, someone may post a photo of their pet from when they first got it, a photo from when they were a child, or a photo from a vacation they went on several years ago. An Instagram post of an old photo of a couple visiting Los Angeles, California 10 years ago.

Someone makes an Instagram post of their dog Sammy taken when he was a puppy. If by any chance you spot an inappropriate comment while navigating through our website please use this form to let us know, and we'll take care of it shortly.

Forgot your password? Retrieve it. Abbreviation » Term. Term » Abbreviation. Word in Term. Term » Abbr. Filter by: Select category from list Couldn't find the full form or full meaning of FBF? Discuss these FBF abbreviations with the community: 0 Comments. Notify me of new comments via email. Cancel Report. Create a new account. Log In. Foul Bachelor Frog , sometimes refereed to as "Facebook frog". The text that people put on the picture is usually in a simple "event" - "reaction" context see examples The text, when done properly usually contains a common, normally undesirable character trait being expressed, such as wearing dirty clothing, "fapping" masturbating into a sock, wearing a fapped into sock, microwaving a harddrive out of paranoia, not caring about surroundings, being disoriented about what time it is after an unexpected nap, etc.

FaceBook Flirting. Fuck buddies forever.

Add a badge to your website or intranet so your workers can quickly find answers to their health and safety questions.

Although every effort is made to ensure the accuracy, currency and completeness of the information, CCOHS does not guarantee, warrant, represent or undertake that the information provided is correct, accurate or current. CCOHS is not liable for any loss, claim, or demand arising directly or indirectly from any use or reliance upon the information. OSH Answers Fact Sheets Easy-to-read, question-and-answer fact sheets covering a wide range of workplace health and safety topics, from hazards to diseases to ergonomics to workplace promotion.

Search all fact sheets: Search. Type a word, a phrase, or ask a question. In occupational health and safety, there is not a single definition of fatigue.

One study reports the following: 17 hours awake is equivalent to a blood alcohol content of 0. Government of Alberta, Labour also reports that fatigue affects people differently but it can increase a worker's hazard exposure by: reducing mental and physical functioning, impairing judgement and concentration, lowering motivation, slowing reaction time, and increasing risk-taking behaviour.

Signs and symptoms of fatigue can vary, and include: weariness, tiredness, sleepiness, including falling asleep against your will "micro" sleeps , irritability, reduced alertness, concentration and memory, reduced ability to be productive, mentally tired, physically tired, lack of motivation, depression, boredom, giddiness, headaches, loss of appetite, digestive problems, and increased susceptibility to illness.

Consequences of fatigue can include mental and physical performance, Studies report the effects of fatigue as: reduced decision making ability or cognitive processing, reduced ability to do complex planning, reduced communication skills, reduced productivity or performance, reduced alertness, attention and vigilance, reduced ability to handle stress on the job, reduced reaction time - both in speed or thought, as well as the ability to react, loss of memory or the ability to recall details, failure to respond to changes in surroundings or information provided, unable to stay awake e.

Fatigue is increased by: dim lighting, limited visual acuity i. These conditions include: insomnia sleep apnea restless legs syndrome narcolepsy Illness, medical conditions, and pharmaceutical products including over-the-counter medications can also affect sleep length and sleep quality. For example, try to offer a variety of tasks that vary in interest and movement throughout the shift. Prevention If you suspect you may have a medical condition that interferes with your sleep, go to your doctor and have any concerns investigated.

Sleep Hygiene There is no one way to get a good sleep - what works for one person may not work for another. In general, suggestions include: Go to bed and get up at the same time every day. Exercise regularly. Eat at regular intervals and consume a balanced diet of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, healthy fats and protein. Use your bed primarily just for sleeping e. If you are not sleepy, do not try to go to bed. Psychological causes of fatigue Studies suggest that psychological factors are present in at least 50 per cent of fatigue cases.

These may include: Depression — this illness is characterised by severe and prolonged feelings of sadness, dejection and hopelessness. People who are depressed commonly experience chronic fatigue.

Anxiety and stress — a person who is chronically anxious or stressed keeps their body in overdrive. The constant flooding of adrenaline exhausts the body, and fatigue sets in. Grief — losing a loved one causes a wide range of emotions including shock, guilt, depression, despair and loneliness. Diagnosing fatigue As fatigue can present a vast range of symptoms and be caused by many different factors working in combination, diagnosis can be difficult. Your doctor may diagnose fatigue using a number of tests including: Medical history — recent events such as childbirth, medication, surgery or bereavement may contribute to fatigue.

Physical examination — to check for signs of illness or disease. Your doctor may also ask detailed questions about diet, lifestyle and life events. Tests — such as blood tests, urine tests, x-rays and other investigations. The idea is to rule out any physical causes, for example anaemia, infection or hormonal problems. Treating fatigue Fatigue is a symptom —something you can feel and describe — not a condition or disease.

Where to get help Your doctor. More information here. Fatigue in the workplace, WorkSafe Victoria. Give feedback about this page. Was this page helpful? Yes No. View all sleep. Related information. Effects of tension and stiffness due to reduced pH in mammalian fast- and slow-twitch skinned skeletal muscle fibres.

Reduced effect of pH on skinned rabbit psoas muscle mechanics at high temperatures: implications for fatigue. Challenging the role of pH in skeletal muscle fatigue. Phys Ther ; 81 : — Muscle fatigue: lactic acid or inorganic phosphate the major cause? News Physiol Sci ; 17 : 17— Allen DG, Trajanovska S. The multiple roles of phosphate in muscle fatigue. Front Physiol ; 3 : Debold EP. Potential molecular mechanisms underlying muscle fatigue mediated by reactive oxygen and nitrogen species.

Front Physiol ; 6 : Reactive oxygen species activate the group IV muscle afferents in resting and exercising muscle in rats. Pflugers Arch ; : — Skeletal muscle fatigue: cellular mechanisms.

Physiol Rev ; 88 : — Effects of ADP on sarcoplasmic reticulum function in mechanically skinned skeletal muscle fibres of the rat. Panossian A, Wikman G. Evidence-based efficacy of adaptogens in fatigue, and molecular mechanisms related to their stress-protective activity. Curr Clin Pharmacol ; 4 : — Contribution of IL-6 to the Hsp72, Hsp25, and alphaB-crystallin [corrected] responses to inflammation and exercise training in mouse skeletal and cardiac muscle.

The mechanisms of the widespread production of phosphorylated HSP25 after fatiguing muscle stimulation. J Exp Biol ; : — Koh TJ. Do small heat shock proteins protect skeletal muscle from injury? Exerc Sport Sci Rev ; 30 : — PubMed Article Google Scholar. Cell Stress Chaperones ; 10 : — Orosomucoid, an acute response protein with multiple modulating activities.

J Physiol Biochem ; 71 : — Fatigue-induced Orosomucoid 1 acts on C-C chemokine receptor type 5 to enhance muscle endurance. Sci Rep ; 6 : Front Pharmacol ; 7 : Increases in corticospinal responsiveness during a sustained submaximal plantar flexion. The response to paired motor cortical stimuli is abolished at a spinal level during human muscle fatigue. J Physiol-London ; 58 : — Cortical and spinal modulation of antagonist coactivation during a submaximal fatiguing contraction in humans.

J Neurophysiol ; 99 : — Changes in the reflex excitability during and after a sustained, low-intensity muscle contraction. Int J Sports Med ; 27 : — Kinetics of neuromuscular changes during low-frequency electrical stimulation.

Muscle Nerve ; 41 : 54— Assessment of H reflex sensitivity with M wave alternation consequent to fatiguing contractions. Int J Neurosci ; : — Increased spinal excitability does not offset central activation failure.

Exp Brain Res ; : — Effects of fatigue duration and muscle type on voluntary and evoked contractile properties. J Appl Physiol ; 82 : — Kent-Braun JA. Central and peripheral contributions to muscle fatigue in humans during sustained maximal effort. Finsterer J. Biomarkers of peripheral muscle fatigue during exercise. BMC Musculoskelet Disord ; 13 : Korzeniewski B. AMP deamination delays muscle acidification during heavy exercise and hypoxia. J Biol Chem ; : — Fatigued muscles in COPD but no finishing line in sight.

Eur Respir J ; 31 : — Skeletal muscle proteomic signature and metabolic impairment in pulmonary hypertension. J Mol Med ; 93 : — Mitoflash altered by metabolic stress in insulin-resistant skeletal muscle. Cardiac biomarkers, electrolytes, and other analytes in collapsed marathon runners: implications for the evaluation of runners following competition. Am J Clin Pathol ; : — Hyperammonemia in the pediatric emergency care setting. Pediatr Emerg Care ; 26 : — Greater growth hormone and insulin response in women than in men during repeated bouts of sprint exercise.

Plasmatic markers of muscular stress in isokinetic exercise. J Biol Reg Homeos Ag ; 21 : 23— CAS Google Scholar. Purine metabolism in women with primary gout. Am J Med ; 97 : — Effects of acute aerobic and anaerobic exercise on blood markers of oxidative stress. J Strength Cond Res ; 19 : — Oxidative stress biomarkers responses to physical overtraining: Implications for diagnosis. Free Radical Bio Med ; 43 : — HIF-P4H-2 deficiency protects against skeletal muscle ischemia-reperfusion injury.

J Mol Med Berl ; 94 : — Increased blood antioxidant systems of runners in response to training load. Clin Sci Lond ; 80 : — Effects of age and caloric restriction on lipid peroxidation: measurement of oxidative stress by F2-isoprostane levels. Age-related changes in nitric oxide activity, cyclic GMP, and TBARS levels in platelets and erythrocytes reflect the oxidative status in central nervous system.

Age Dordr ; 35 : — Plasma protein oxidation and its correlation with antioxidant potential during human aging. Dis Markers ; 29 : 31— Aging-related oxidative stress in healthy humans. Tohoku J Exp Med ; : — Glutathione, vitamin E and oxidative stress in coronary artery disease: relevance of age and gender. Eur J Clin Invest ; 39 : — Vitai M, Goth L. Reference ranges of normal blood catalase activity and levels in familial hypocatalasemia in Hungary.

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Reference intervals for human peripheral blood lymphocyte subpopulations from 'healthy' young and aged subjects. Int Arch Allergy Immunol ; : — Donor CD8 T cells and IFN-gamma are critical for sex-based differences in donor CD4 T cell engraftment and lupus-like phenotype in short-term chronic graft-versus-host disease mice.

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Pharmacol Rev ; 14 : 1— Physiological effects of the amphetamines during exercise. S Afr Med J ; 45 : — Gerald MC. Neuropharmacology ; 17 : — Morton, R. Deception by manipulating the clock calibration influences cycle ergometer endurance time in males.

Mosso, A. Noakes, T. Challenging beliefs: ex Africa semper aliquid novi: J. Wolffe Memorial Lecture. Linear relationship between the perception of effort and the duration of constant load exercise that remains. Rating of perceived exertion as a predictor of the duration of exercise that remains until exhaustion. Testing for maximum oxygen consumption has produced a brainless model of human exercise performance.

Evidence that reduced skeletal muscle recruitment explains the lactate paradox during exercise at high altitude. Is it time to retire the A. Hill Model? A rebuttal to the article by Professor Roy Shephard. Time to move beyond a brainless exercise physiology: the evidence for complex regulation of human exercise performance. Which lap is the slowest? An analysis of 32 world record performances. Arterial oxygenation, central motor output and exercise performance in humans.

From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans. From catastrophe to complexity: a novel model of integrative central neural regulation of effort and fatigue during exercise in humans: summary and conclusions. Nybo, L. Inadequate cerebral oxygen delivery and central fatigue during strenuous exercise.

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Pollo, A. The top-down influence of ergogenic placebos on muscle work and fatigue. Pritchard-Peschek, K. Pseudoephedrine ingestion and cycling time-trial performance. Sport Nutr. Racinais, S. Modulation in voluntary neural drive in relation to muscle soreness. Raskoff, W. JAMA , — Rasmussen, P. Reduced muscle activation during exercise related to brain oxygenation and metabolism in humans.

Cerebral oxygenation is reduced during hyperthermic exercise in humans. Rauch, H. A signalling role for muscle glycogen in the regulation of pace during prolonged exercise. Renfree, A. Complex interplay between determinants of pacing and performance during 20 km cycle time trials. Sports Physiol. Rerych, S. Cardiac function at rest and during exercise in normals and in patients with coronary heart disease: evaluation by radionuclide angiocardiography.

Robertson, E. Robson-Ansley, P. Acute interleukin-6 administration impairs athletic performance in healthy, trained male runners. Roelands, B. The effects of acute dopamine reuptake inhibition on performance. Alterations in central fatigue by pharmacological manipulations of neurotransmitters in normal and high ambient temperature.

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Effect of severe hypoxia on prefrontal cortex and muscle oxygenation responses at rest and during exhaustive exercise. Schlader, Z. The independent roles of temperature and thermal perception in the control of human thermoregulatory behavior. Schneider, S. Exercise, music, and the brain: is there a central pattern generator? Seifert, T. Cerebral oxygenation decreases during exercise in humans with beta-adrenergic blockade. Sgherza, A. Effect of naloxone on perceived exertion and exercise capacity during maximal cycle ergometry.

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Non-random fluctuations in power output during self-paced exercise. The rate of heat storage mediates an anticipatory reduction in exercise intensity during cycling at a fixed rating of perceived exertion. Hyperoxia improves 20 km cycling time trial performance by increasing muscle activation levels while perceived exertion stays the same. The physiological regulation of pacing strategy during exercise: a critical review. Impaired exercise performance in the heat is associated with an anticipatory reduction in skeletal muscle recruitment.

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Keywords: fatigue, central nervous system, central governor model, anticipation, feedback, feedforward, brain, skeletal muscle. Citation: Noakes TD Fatigue is a brain-derived emotion that regulates the exercise behavior to ensure the protection of whole body homeostasis.

A unicast MAC address is the unique address used when a frame is sent from a single transmitting device to single destination device. In the example shown in the figure, a host with IP address For a unicast packet to be sent and received, a destination IP address must be in the IP packet header. A corresponding destination MAC address must also be present in the Ethernet frame header.

With a broadcast, the packet contains a destination IP address that has all ones 1s in the host portion. This numbering in the address means that all hosts on that local network broadcast domain will receive and process the packet.

As shown in the figure, a broadcast IP address for a network needs a corresponding broadcast MAC address in the Ethernet frame. Recall that multicast addresses allow a source device to send a packet to a group of devices. Devices that belong to a multicast group are assigned a multicast group IP address. The range of multicast addresses is from Because multicast addresses represent a group of addresses sometimes called a host group , they can only be used as the destination of a packet.

The source will always have a unicast address. Examples of where multicast addresses would be used are in remote gaming, where many players are connected remotely but playing the same game, and distance learning through video conferencing, where many students are connected to the same class. As with the unicast and broadcast addresses, the multicast IP address requires a corresponding multicast MAC address to actually deliver frames on a local network. The multicast MAC address is a special value that begins with E in hexadecimal.

The value ends by converting the lower 23 bits of the IP multicast group address into the remaining 6 hexadecimal characters of the Ethernet address.

The remaining bit in the MAC address is always a "0". An example, as shown in the graphic, is hexadecimal EA. Each hexadecimal character is 4 binary bits. Media Access Control in Ethernet In a shared media environment, all devices have guaranteed access to the medium, but they have no prioritized claim on it. If more than one device transmits simultaneously, the physical signals collide and the network must recover in order for communication to continue.

Collisions are the cost that Ethernet pays to get the low overhead associated with each transmission. Because all computers using Ethernet send their messages on the same media, a distributed coordination scheme CSMA is used to detect the electrical activity on the cable.

A device can then determine when it can transmit. When a device detects that no other computer is sending a frame, or carrier signal, the device will transmit, if it has something to send.

If a device detects a signal from another device, it will wait for a specified amount of time before attempting to transmit. When there is no traffic detected, a device will transmit its message. While this transmission is occurring, the device continues to listen for traffic or collisions on the LAN.

After the message is sent, the device returns to its default listening mode. If the distance between devices is such that the latency of one device's signals means that signals are not detected by a second device, the second device may start to transmit, too. The media now has two devices transmitting their signals at the same time. Their messages will propagate across the media until they encounter each other. At that point, the signals mix and the message is destroyed. Although the messages are corrupted, the jumble of remaining signals continues to propagate across the media.

When a device is in listening mode, it can detect when a collision occurs on the shared media. The detection of a collision is made possible because all devices can detect an increase in the amplitude of the signal above the normal level.

Once a collision occurs, the other devices in listening mode - as well as all the transmitting devices - will detect the increase in the signal amplitude.

Once detected, every device transmitting will continue to transmit to ensure that all devices on the network detect the collision. Jam Signal and Random Backoff. Once the collision is detected by the transmitting devices, they send out a jamming signal. This jamming signal is used to notify the other devices of a collision, so that they will invoke a backoff algorithm.

This backoff algorithm causes all devices to stop transmitting for a random amount of time, which allows the collision signals to subside. After the delay has expired on a device, the device goes back into the "listening before transmit" mode.

A random backoff period ensures that the devices that were involved in the collision do not try to send their traffic again at the same time, which would cause the whole process to repeat. But, this also means that a third device may transmit before either of the two involved in the original collision have a chance to re-transmit.

Because of the rapid growth of the Internet:. More devices are being connected to the network. Recall that hubs were created as intermediary network devices that enable more nodes to connect to the shared media.

Also known as multi-port repeaters, hubs retransmit received data signals to all connected devices, except the one from which it received the signals. Hubs do not perform network functions such as directing data based on addresses.

Hubs and repeaters are intermediary devices that extend the distance that Ethernet cables can reach. Because hubs operate at the Physical layer, dealing only with the signals on the media, collisions can occur between the devices they connect and within the hubs themselves. Further, using hubs to provide network access to more users reduces the performance for each user because the fixed capacity of the media has to be shared between more and more devices. The connected devices that access a common media via a hub or series of directly connected hubs make up what is known as a collision domain.

A collision domain is also referred to as a network segment. Hubs and repeaters therefore have the effect of increasing the size of the collision domain. As shown in the figure, the interconnection of hubs form a physical topology called an extended star.

The extended star can create a greatly expanded collision domain. An increased number of collisions reduces the network's efficiency and effectiveness until the collisions become a nuisance to the user.

Therefore, other mechanisms are required when large numbers of users require access and when more active network access is needed. We will see that using switches in place of hubs can begin to alleviate this problem. Ethernet Timing Faster Physical layer implementations of Ethernet introduce complexities to the management of collisions. As discussed, each device that wants to transmit must first "listen" to the media to check for traffic.

If no traffic exists, the station will begin to transmit immediately. The electrical signal that is transmitted takes a certain amount of time latency to propagate travel down the cable.

Each hub or repeater in the signal's path adds latency as it forwards the bits from one port to the next. This accumulated delay increases the likelihood that collisions will occur because a listening node may transition into transmitting signals while the hub or repeater is processing the message.

Because the signal had not reached this node while it was listening, it thought that the media was available. This condition often results in collisions. In half-duplex mode, if a collision has not occurred, the sending device will transmit 64 bits of timing synchronization information, which is known as the Preamble.

The sending device will then transmit the complete frame. Ethernet with throughput speeds of 10 Mbps and slower are asynchronous. An asynchronous communication in this context means that each receiving device will use the 8 bytes of timing information to synchronize the receive circuit to the incoming data and then discard the 8 bytes.

Ethernet implementations with throughput of Mbps and higher are synchronous. Synchronous communication in this context means that the timing information is not required. For each different media speed, a period of time is required for a bit to be placed and sensed on the media. This period of time is referred to as the bit time. At Mbps, that same bit requires 10 nS to transmit. And at Mbps, it only takes 1 nS to transmit a bit.

As a rough estimate, At Mbps, the device timing is barely able to accommodate meter cables. At Mbps, special adjustments are required because nearly an entire minimum-sized frame would be transmitted before the first bit reached the end of the first meters of UTP cable.

For this reason, half-duplex mode is not permitted in Gigabit Ethernet. These timing considerations have to be applied to the interframe spacing and backoff times both of which are discussed in the next section to ensure that when a device transmits its next frame, the risk of a collision is minimized. In half-duplex Ethernet, where data can only travel in one direction at once, slot time becomes an important parameter in determining how many devices can share a network.

For all speeds of Ethernet transmission at or below Mbps, the standard describes how an individual transmission may be no smaller than the slot time. Determining slot time is a trade-off between the need to reduce the impact of collision recovery backoff and retransmission times and the need for network distances to be large enough to accommodate reasonable network sizes. The compromise was to choose a maximum network diameter about meters and then to set the minimum frame length long enough to ensure detection of all worst-case collisions.

Slot time for and Mbps Ethernet is bit times, or 64 octets. Slot time for Mbps Ethernet is bit times, or octets. The slot time ensures that if a collision is going to occur, it will be detected within the first bits for Gigabit Ethernet of the frame transmission. This simplifies the handling of frame retransmissions following a collision. Slot time is an important parameter for the following reasons:. The bit slot time establishes the minimum size of an Ethernet frame as 64 bytes.

Any frame less than 64 bytes in length is considered a "collision fragment" or "runt frame" and is automatically discarded by receiving stations. Slot time is calculated assuming maximum cable lengths on the largest legal network architecture. All hardware propagation delay times are at the legal maximum and the bit jam signal is used when collisions are detected. The actual calculated slot time is just longer than the theoretical amount of time required to travel between the furthest points of the collision domain, collide with another transmission at the last possible instant, and then have the collision fragments return to the sending station and be detected.

See the figure. For the system to work properly, the first device must learn about the collision before it finishes sending the smallest legal frame size. To allow Mbps Ethernet to operate in half-duplex mode, the extension field was added to the frame when sending small frames purely to keep the transmitter busy long enough for a collision fragment to return.

This field is present only on Mbps, half-duplex links and allows minimum-sized frames to be long enough to meet slot time requirements. Extension bits are discarded by the receiving device. The Ethernet standards require a minimum spacing between two non-colliding frames.

This gives the media time to stabilize after the transmission of the previous frame and time for the devices to process the frame. Referred to as the interframe spacing , this time is measured from the last bit of the FCS field of one frame to the first bit of the Preamble of the next frame. After a frame has been sent, all devices on a 10 Mbps Ethernet network are required to wait a minimum of 96 bit times 9.

On faster versions of Ethernet, the spacing remains the same - 96 bit times - but the interframe spacing time period grows correspondingly shorter.

Synchronization delays between devices may result in the loss of some of frame preamble bits. This in turn may cause minor reduction of the interframe spacing when hubs and repeaters regenerate the full 64 bits of timing information the Preamble and SFD at the start of every frame forwarded.

On higher speed Ethernet some time sensitive devices could potentially fail to recognize individual frames resulting in communication failure. As you will recall, Ethernet allows all devices to compete for transmitting time. But remember, when a larger number of devices are added to the network, it is possible for the collisions to become increasingly difficult to resolve. As soon as a collision is detected, the sending devices transmit a bit "jam" signal that will enforce the collision.

This ensures all devices in the LAN to detect the collision. It is important that the jam signal not be detected as a valid frame; otherwise the collision would not be identified. The most commonly observed data pattern for a jam signal is simply a repeating 1, 0, 1, 0 pattern, the same as the Preamble. The corrupted, partially transmitted messages are often referred to as collision fragments or runts.

Normal collisions are less than 64 octets in length and therefore fail both the minimum length and the FCS tests, making them easy to identify. After a collision occurs and all devices allow the cable to become idle each waits the full interframe spacing , the devices whose transmissions collided must wait an additional - and potentially progressively longer - period of time before attempting to retransmit the collided frame.

The waiting period is intentionally designed to be random so that two stations do not delay for the same amount of time before retransmitting, which would result in more collisions. This is accomplished in part by expanding the interval from which the random retransmission time is selected on each retransmission attempt. The waiting period is measured in increments of the parameter slot time. If media congestion results in the MAC layer unable to send the frame after 16 attempts, it gives up and generates an error to the Network layer.

Such an occurrence is rare in a properly operating network and would happen only under extremely heavy network loads or when a physical problem exists on the network. The methods described in this section allowed Ethernet to provide greater service in a shared media topology based on the use of hubs.

Ethernet is covered by the IEEE Four data rates are currently defined for operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:. While there are many different implementations of Ethernet at these various data rates, only the more common ones will be presented here.

The figure shows some of the Ethernet PHY characteristics. The portion of Ethernet that operates on the Physical layer will be discussed in this section, beginning with 10Base-T and continuing to 10 Gbps varieties.

These implementations are no longer used and are not supported by the newer However, Cat5 or later cabling is typically used today. The pair connected to pins 1 and 2 are used for transmitting and the pair connected to pins 3 and 6 are used for receiving. The replacement of hubs with switches in 10BASE-T networks has greatly increased the throughput available to these networks and has given Legacy Ethernet greater longevity. In the mid to late s, several new These standards used different encoding requirements for achieving these higher data rates.

The most popular implementations of Mbps Ethernet are:. Because the higher frequency signals used in Fast Ethernet are more susceptible to noise, two separate encoding steps are used by Mbps Ethernet to enhance signal integrity. The figure shows an example of a physical star topology. Although the encoding, decoding, and clock recovery procedures are the same for both media, the signal transmission is different - electrical pulses in copper and light pulses in optical fiber.

Fiber implementations are point-to-point connections, that is, they are used to interconnect two devices. These connections may be between two computers, between a computer and a switch, or between two switches. The development of Gigabit Ethernet standards resulted in specifications for UTP copper, single-mode fiber, and multimode fiber. On Gigabit Ethernet networks, bits occur in a fraction of the time that they take on Mbps networks and 10 Mbps networks.

With signals occurring in less time, the bits become more susceptible to noise, and therefore timing is critical. Network Layer 2 protocols Depending upon their requirements, certain protocols are chosen over others. Here is a list of commonly used Layer 2 protocols: LLDP Link layer discovery protocol LLDP is vendor neutral, and is commonly used as a component in network management and network monitoring applications.

IP route This command contains information from the IP routing table that can be used to forward a packet through the best path towards its destination. This protocol is preferred for discovering switches. ARP translates bit addresses to bit and vice versa, and is preferred by IPv4 devices. Multi-link trunking Protocol MLT MLT provides high-speed, fault tolerant connection between servers, switches and routers by grouping all ethernet links into a single logical ethernet link.

CAN Controller area network CAN facilitates communication between the applications of microcontrollers and their devices without relying on a host computer. Video Zone. IT Admin from "Royal flying doctor service", Australia.

Jonathan ManageEngine Customer. EtherType Data Destination Address. The address es are specified for a unicast, multicast subgroup , or broadcast an entire group. This part gets inserted into the data field. The destination network layer, protocol type of the packet. The source network layer, protocol type of the packet. Defines which upper layer protocol will utilize the Ethernet frame. Address Mapping.

The Ethernet protocol allows for bus, star, or tree topologies, depending on the type of cables used and other factors. This heavy coaxial cabling was expensive to purchase, install, and maintain, and very difficult to retrofit into existing facilities.

The current standards are now built around the use of twisted pair wire. Fiber cable can also be used at this level in 10BaseFL. The Fast Ethernet protocol supports transmission up to Mbps.

In addition, category 5 twisted pair or fiber optic cable is necessary. Fast Ethernet standards include:. Gigabit Ethernet standard is a protocol that has a transmission speed of 1 Gbps Mbps. It can be used with both fiber optic cabling and copper. The Ethernet standards continue to evolve. Several very popular network protocols, commonly used in the 90's and early 21st century have now largely fallen into disuse.

While you may hear terms from time to time, such as "Localtalk" Apple or "Token Ring" IBM , you will rarely find these systems still in operation. Although they played an important role in the evolution of networking, their performance and capacity limitations have relegated them to the past, in the wake of the standardization of Ethernet driven by the success of the Internet.

The network layer is in charge of routing network messages data from one computer to another. Every network device such as network interface cards and printers have a physical address called a MAC Media Access Control address.

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Watch the song video What Do You Say? Browse Lyrics. Our awesome collection of Promoted Songs ». Good Bye Dave. Have you ever. Michael J. Quiz Are you a music master? Shawshank Redemption. Reservoir Dogs. Pulp Fiction. Get instant explanation for any lyrics that hits you anywhere on the web!

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Myth 5: There is nothing wrong with having a small baby. Myth 6: The only way to quit smoking is cold turkey. Myth 8: I smoke, so I should not breastfeed my baby. Quit Notes. Sign Up. Each day away from your last cigarette will make you stronger.

Smokefree Kelly. More for you. Quit for Two. Quitting smoking is the best thing you can do for yourself and your baby—no matter where you are in your pregnancy. Get prepared to quit for two. Staying Smokefree After Baby. Experts say the benefits from e-cigarettes to people to stop smoking tobacco cigarettes outweighs the risks from teen vaping. Experts say some manufacturers may not be aware of some of the chemicals in their products.

Those chemicals may raise the health risks from vaping. Experts say nicotine withdrawal can cause people trying to quit smoking to select foods high in carbohydrates and sugar, causing them to gain weight. About 17 percent of high school students in a new survey were listed as "triple users" of marijuana, cigarettes, and e-cigarettes. Experts say people taking the anti-smoking drug Chantix should continue taking the medication until they can talk with their doctor about alternatives.

Health Conditions Discover Plan Connect. Medically reviewed by Debra Rose Wilson, Ph. Getting pregnant. Miscarriage and stillbirth. Ectopic pregnancy. Placental abruption. Placenta previa. Preterm birth. These can include: visual and hearing impairments mental disability learning and behavioral problems complications that could result in death.

Low birth weight. Birth defects. The unfortunate truth. Resources to help you quit. If you smoke and are planning to get pregnant or are pregnant right now, here are some resources to help you quit: Read more about smoking cessation. Pregnant women with asthma need to continue to take their asthma medication as it is important to the health of both mother and baby that the mother's asthma is well managed.

Exposure to second-hand smoke increases the risk of children developing asthma and provokes more frequent asthma in children with asthma. Pregnancy is calculated from the first day of your last period, not from the date of conception. Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not in any way endorse or support such therapy, service, product or treatment and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional.

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The State of Victoria and the Department of Health shall not bear any liability for reliance by any user on the materials contained on this website. Skip to main content. Healthy pregnancy. Home Healthy pregnancy. Pregnancy and smoking. Actions for this page Listen Print. Summary Read the full fact sheet. On this page. Pregnancy complications from smoking Smoking during pregnancy — effects on the fetus Problems at birth due to smoking during pregnancy Smoking and breastfeeding Smoking during pregnancy can cause problems for your child in later life Pregnancy and quitting smoking Where to get help.

Pregnancy complications from smoking Some of the pregnancy complications more commonly experienced by women who smoke include: ectopic pregnancy — this is pregnancy outside the uterus, usually in the fallopian tube fetal death — death of the baby in the uterus stillbirth spontaneous abortion — known as miscarriage problems with the placenta, including early detachment from the uterine wall and blocking the cervical opening placenta previa premature rupture of the membranes premature labour.

The safest thing is to stop smoking completely. When you smoke, you breathe in a cocktail of dangerous chemicals, including a gas called carbon monoxide. You blow into a machine which measures the carbon monoxide in your body and you get the results straightaway. If the result is 4 or more your midwife will ask you whether you smoke, or whether you live in a house where someone else smokes. But smoking can slow down growth, which means your baby could have health problems.

E-cigs are almost certainly less harmful for you than tobacco smoking, but the main aim is to stop using any cigarettes. This is called second-hand smoke. Second-hand smoke is harmful for you and your baby.

And once you've got more than a few live tiles activated, your screen can start to look like a Las Vegas casino, with a wall of rotating, scrolling squares each trying to catch your eye. Yet, it's undoubtedly an improvement on what went before for non-touchscreen devices.

Other notable new additions are the Cortana search bar in the bottom left of the Taskbar. We'll talk more about Cortana later, but the search bar lets you enter voice or typed searches for apps or files stored on your PC.

You can click the My Stuff button in search results to perform more advanced searches of your own files, which certainly makes it easier to hunt down specific files than with Windows 8. However, we still find it easier to instigate advanced searches from within Files Explorer called Windows Explorer in 8. Windows 10 did eventually add the option to search emails through this box, which is a great addition. Talking of Files Explorer, that's had a refresh too.

Aside from a stark new set of icons, Explorer now has a Quick Access view which shows your most frequently opened folders at the top of the window, with a list of recently accessed files just below, making it easier to quickly pick up where you left off on files that are nested deep in folders.

You can still pin your favourite folders to the left-hand pane of Files Explorer, but this does create some duplication with the frequent folders pane just next to it, whilst the Libraries first introduced in Windows 7 are now almost hidden from view.

The new Explorer is a modest improvement on Windows 8. One significant new interface element for businesses is virtual desktops. An idea brazenly lifted from the Linux world, Windows 10's virtual desktops let you keep different sets of apps open in different desktops.

You might, for example, have one desktop dedicated to communications with, say, Outlook, Slack and Skype running and another for work on a particular project Excel and a web browser. It allows you to compartmentalise your work, and avoid having desktops cluttered with several open windows, but it's frustrating that many apps designed to run full-screen on a touchscreen can only occupy a single desktop. Winner : Windows 10 corrects most of Windows 8's ills with the Start screen, whilst revamped file management and virtual desktops are potential productivity boosters.

An outright victory for desktop and laptop users. Even though it was the biggest overhaul of the OS since Windows 95, Windows 8 was remarkably stable and bug-free from the get-go. Indeed, we had it running on everyday work systems six months before launch. Windows 10 has been, to put it charitably, a tad wobblier. Microsoft is regularly issuing updates for the software, but these updates often cause problems.

It seems like every few months there are new reports of accidental file deletions, glitches, crashes and other assorted errors. General stability is certainly better than it was, but the fact that these errors persist is frustrating.

So far, we haven't seen any bugs that we'd consider enough to warrant downgrading to an earlier version of Windows, but it has to be said that reliability isn't Windows 10's strong suit - and it doesn't look like it ever will be. On the other hand, Windows 10 Enterprise users can cut out a lot of this headache - which we'll talk about more in a minute - meaning it's not quite so much of an issue.

Winner : Windows 8. Businesses can opt to skip many of the issues introduced by Windows 10's rolling updates, but the fact that they have to in the first place is hardly encouraging. Windows 8. All of those features remain in Windows 10, and there are others that could have a hugely significant impact on business rollouts. In-place upgrades have been made much smoother, meaning IT managers won't have to wipe and reimage as they may have done before.

On our ThinkPad loaded with business-oriented desktop apps Office , Slack, Creative Suite amongst others , we performed an in-place upgrade to Windows 10 Pro in less than 40 minutes, with all documents, applications and settings perfectly retained. Snapping apps into place is an easy affair.

Touch users can swipe slowly from the left edge and drag a thumbnail of an app into place. Mouse users can activate the Switcher in the top left hot corner and then drag an app into place. One last radical change for Windows 8 is the changes to the lock screen. Microsoft has opted to provide time, date, calendar entries, network status, and battery levels as default, but you can display up to seven lock screen apps that will provide quick status and notifications when a screen is locked. This is particularly useful if you want to glance at a mobile device to see how many calendar appointments you have during the day or the amount of emails in your inbox.

Microsoft has created a built in picture password option that will allow you to sign in by tapping secret areas on a picture of your choice. System-wide notifications are also present in Windows 8. The Start button removal is the biggest visual change, but there are a variety of ways to trigger this traditional functionality with the hot corners of Windows 8, or by using a gesture-enabled mouse or trackpad.

Users who are upgrading will, depending on the previous OS, likely launch most applications into desktop mode. Windows Explorer is also improved and renamed, now referred to as File Explorer in Windows 8. Microsoft has added the ribbon interface to File Explorer, which is collapsed by default. Although it takes up a significant amount of space when enabled, it helps surface a number of common file management scenarios and certainly speeds up some of these tasks.

Microsoft has also brought the up arrow back, something the company attempted to kill off in Windows 7. Microsoft has also improved the move and copy dialogs in File Explorer, a single window lets you pause, cancel, and assess file operations. An updated Task Manager is simplified in every sense of the word.

The default view will list all currently running applications. A secondary view provides even greater information, with performance metrics and app history throughout a number of detailed tabs. The Windows 8 desktop also provides access to a new File History option, Storage Spaces, and restore or reset options. Storage Spaces lets Windows 8 users group together physical disks into a larger RAID-like storage pool for increased resiliency in the case of a physical failure.

To Windows 8, virtual disks look like regular physical disks, and users can partition, format, and copy data to the drive much like traditional storage. Windows 8 also includes restore and reset options, allowing users to refresh a PC while keeping documents, accounts, personal settings, and Windows Store apps — but returning Windows to its original state.

The company has struggled to provide adequate multiple monitor support in previous Windows versions, leaving it up to graphics card vendors to supply additional functionality with drivers. Not everything is improved here, but basics like different desktop backgrounds on each monitor are now supported. You can now span a single picture across multiple monitors. Taskbar options are greatly improved, with the ability to display the taskbar on all displays and options to show buttons on all taskbars or individual ones where the window is open and the main taskbar resides.

Thankfully the traditional keyboard shortcuts still work, so power users can run Windows 8 on a desktop in a similar way to Windows 7. Microsoft has also added a power user menu to the Start screen tile that appears in the lower left in desktop mode. Windows RT is based on Windows 8, with the new Windows 8-style user interface, but it will not run traditional desktop applications — an important difference to understand.

The desktop remains, but aside from the legacy built-in apps like Paint or Notepad , the only desktop apps that run are Internet Explorer 10 desktop and Office RT. I have previously discussed the confusing choice to keep a desktop mode in an operating system that will primarily ship on tablet hardware, but Microsoft is justifying this with its inclusion of Office RT. This will be an inevitable source of confusion for consumers once they realise that Surface RT tablets and other Windows RT tablets do not run legacy apps.

At a time when Microsoft was promoting the release of Windows 7 at CES , Apple was preparing to launch its iPad — a tablet computer that altered the mobile computing landscape.

Microsoft had tried to launch its own tablets with its partners back in , but they failed to gain any traction due to a combination of hardware and software restrictions.

Windows 7 added the basics of touch support, with some slight improvements to make the traditional desktop manageable in this mode. It was nowhere near enough and Windows 8 breaks away entirely from the desktop in an effort to promote a new style of applications that Microsoft is betting the future of Windows on. The focus on touch-based computing in Windows 8 is huge.

At the same time, Microsoft hopes this bet will encourage developers to create Windows 8 style apps thanks to the number of devices that will run the new operating system. This approach is incredibly risky. If you use Windows 8 on a desktop PC with a keyboard and mouse it can feel awkward at times, frustrating at others, and confusing. The secret to its success is Cortana, a voice assistant ported over from Windows Phone and whose name comes from the Halo video game franchise.

Like Siri on iOS and Google Voice Search on Android, Cortana can respond to voice commands and perform everything from quick Internet searches to core tasks around Windows 10 like opening a new email, creating calendar entries and much more. Edge works significantly faster than Internet Explorer and is only available on Windows These allow users without multi-monitor setups to create multiple virtual desktops which are handy for splitting usage between work and leisure, work into projects or whatever you require.

Those specifications:. I suspect a major motivator for Microsoft here was that Windows 10 needs to run smoothly on both phones and tablets as well as PCs.

That should make it efficient enough to run on most PCs these days, with the exception of some very old Windows XP machines. Security - While both Windows 7 and Windows 8 do a pretty good job of keeping users secure, Windows 10 ups its game with several new features.

Device Guard can also operate virtually so even if it is compromised a remote version can recognise and neutralise malicious software. Lastly in Windows 10 Microsoft now delivers security patches outside Windows Update so they go straight to your computer the moment they are available.

In theory this means Windows 10 computers are always up-to-date which gives hackers a much harder time, even if there are also some notable downsides. Great as a free price tag, longer support, better apps and gaming, searches and security may sound unfortunately the list where Windows 7 and Windows 8 current beat out Windows 10 is just as strong.

Among these are disappearing icons from the taskbar, Start Menu lock-ups, Windows Store download bugs, copy and paste errors, problems with audio and more. In fact Microsoft is about to release a massive one gigabyte download of bug fixes, which gives you an idea of the scale. The trouble is such numerous patches always bring new bugs of their own. This has included automatically installing a broken graphics driver which crashed displays , a security patch which crashed Windows Explorer and more.

I believe the ideal solution lies halfway between the two: make all updates automatic by default, but give users the option to stop or delay any update categories or individual updates they like. Right now this lack of flexibility makes Windows 10 a deal breaker for some. Microsoft requires users to accept these terms in its Windows 10 EULA end user licence agreement and security updates now sidestep Windows Update and are installed to all versions of Windows 10 without warning.

Meanwhile driver and feature updates through Windows Update can be delayed up to one month by Windows 10 Home users the vast majority of consumers and eight months by Windows 10 Pro customers most businesses , but after that time Microsoft will cut off the next round of updates including security patches from users until they accept the previous ones.

Windows 7 and Windows 8 have had similar policies for major updates in the past Service Packs in Windows 7, and the Windows 8. Privacy - If the enforcement policies were tough, however, they have nothing on the privacy violations Microsoft requests in the Windows 10 EULA.

A notable section reads:. Ease of Use - In fairness Windows 7 is so ubiquitous that Windows 10 was never going to be more intuitive to use than its much loved forebear.